In addition to the working definition of reading, it is also useful to list some important assumptions and guidelines for the general pedagogical approach we will take. Keeping these in mind will help us to design a more effective course of instruction.
A. Communicating in culture: The goal of foreign language learning is to enable the learner to communicate in the foreign culture. That is, to make his intentions understood and to understand the intentions of others.
B. Self-learning/ Life-long learning: Because in most pedagogical situations the contact time between the learner and the instructor is very limited in relation to the total amount of time the learner has available for learning, another important task of foreign language instruction should be to teach the learner how to use any resource available to learn on his own. This will help the learner continue to learn even after he has finished formal education. In addition, different learners have different interests and motivations for learning Chinese culture. Proficiency in self-learning will enable them to pursue their own particular interests.
C. Learner-centered: The goal of foreign language instruction is to improve the learner's skills. The instructors should be careful not to concentrate only on their own performance. They must be aware of the needs and goals of the learners, and they must monitor the learners' progress in order to make changes when necessary.
D. Grading based on performance: Because the goal of the course is for the learners to improve their skill in culturally-appropriate performance, the grading should be based on culturally-appropriate performance. The grading system should also provide frequent feedback to the learners on how to improve their performance, as well as let them know what they do well.
E. Flexibility: Because Chinese courses often have students from varying backgrounds, the course should be flexible enough so that each learner can be challenged while no learner feels overwhelmed. The learners should not be frustrated because it is too easy for them or too difficult for them.
IV. Determining Goals
The main goals of the course are improvement in the learners' reading proficiency and self-learning skills. As far as specific goals for the course are concerned, they should include two different types of goals. First, the instructor or program director should set basic goals based on the past performance of learners in the program. Information on past performance can come from learners' grades and evaluations of the course, as well as from their performance on standardized tests. Second, the learners should have the opportunity to communicate some of their goals and expectations for the course to the instructor. This can be in the form of a questionnaire or an individual meeting with the instructor at the beginning of the course. Perhaps some of the learners' special needs can be met with flexible parts of the course. Also, this process gives the instructor an opportunity to comment on unrealistic goals and expectations at the beginning of the course, thereby avoiding disappointment later on. In general, goals are very important motivators for both the instructor and the learners. If both the learners and the instructor understand the goals at the beginning of the course they can work together to accomplish them.
V. Selecting Materials
There are many factors to consider in selecting materials, including the level of the learners, the interests of the learners, the length of the course, the goals of the course, and practical factors such as the availability and cost of the materials.
In general, we want to use as much authentic Chinese materials as possible. What we mean by 'authentic' is materials written in Chinese for Chinese readership. Nevertheless, the level of the learners will determine how much authentic material they can handle. For example, to suit students who have just reached a basic literacy level of instruction, which is roughly 150-300 hours of instruction and command of around 500 characters (cf. Walker, 1984), the authentic materials must be very short. Examples from the newspaper include advertisements, jokes, notices or announcements, short letters, short articles, and weather reports. These materials should be complemented by a published text which has readings ranging from a very spoken style (口語) at the beginning to a more written style (書面語) at the end. Even though we would like to use authentic materials exclusively, a well-designed textbook is more efficient for learners just beyond the basic literacy level. It provides a means for them to learn the conventions of written style in a controlled environment, preventing them from becoming frustrated. At the same time, however, mastering the authentic materials mentioned above can add greatly to the learners' sense of accomplishment and reduce their fear of authentic materials.
After the basic conventions of written style have been mastered, the program should give the learners an even higher percentage of authentic materials, including a wide variety of newspaper articles.
One last general note about materials concerns simplified and complex versions of Chinese characters. Since both types are currently in use in various Chinese communities, learners should practice reading both types.
A. For this course, a reading package with selected articles from some current textbooks will be used to help the students learn commonly- occurring vocabulary in specific subject areas. This will save time because the reading package has a vocabulary list after each article. This also provides a transition into the style of newspaper Chinese. The articles are selected from the following textbooks:
1.Reading Chinese Newspapers: Tactics and Skills. Stanley Mickel, Far Eastern Publications, Yale University.
2.實用新聞選讀 Practical newspaper Readings. Chen-ching Li, Mandarin Training Center, National Taiwan Normal University.
3.新聞漢語導讀 Guided Reading in Journalistic Chinese. Guang-heng Shi and Shao-xin Wang ed. 北京語言學院出版社.
4.中國家常 Chinese Chitchat. 楊賀松 ed. 北京大學出版社. 1992.
5.新編實用漢語系列教材,閱讀編 IV:報刊時文. New Practical Systematic Chinese Teaching Materials, Reading Series, Vol. IV: Contemporary Articles. The Ohio State University.
The principle reason for the choice of the main text is that it is readily available in the United States. Small sections of the supplementary texts from Taiwan and China can be used to show different perspectives.
B. The most important texts will be the actual newspapers: 大公報,人民日報,中央日報,世界日報,自立周報. They are all available in the United States.
C. Some accessories can be used to provide familiarity with a broader range of the discourse concerning some of the specific topics. For example, TV news from the PRC and Taiwan, and Chinese movies. In addition, Chinese news information is readily available on the internet. The course should provide some opportunity for students to practice accessing news and information on the internet.
VI. Instructional Cycle
In general, the instruction should be divided into two types of activities, FACT activities and ACT activities. FACT activities are designed to help the learner become familiar with the organization of newspapers in the target language, what they offer, and how to access them. They should also introduce the learner to elements of written style. These activities familiarize the learners with the Chinese newspapers, helping the learners to become more able and more likely to make use of them. FACT activities may be presented in the base language or the target language, depending on the level of the class. Any base language material is best suited for self-study rather than instructor contact time. As much as possible, FACT activities should require the learner to perform some activity, rather than simply read some material prepared by the instructor. Learning by doing fits with our emphasis on self-learning.
VII. Verifying Results
A. In General: Testing the results of the skill improvement of the students is very important in any program. It motivates learners and instructors by allowing them to see progress toward their goals. It also can identify areas in the program that need improvement. This testing of results happens in several ways. First, daily performance grading allows the learners to see their progress. More importantly, the learners should have a sense of their own improvement just from the structure of the learning activities. For example, in this newspaper course the learners should be able to perceive that their ability to read the newspaper is improving throughout the term. Finally, some form of standardized test is very useful for the reading program. Because learners perceive them as objective they often are influenced by the results. If the learners all take a standardized test at the beginning of the term and then again at the end of the term, they will have concrete evidence of their improvement. This is a strong motivator for the learners. Also, records of learner improvement on the standardized test can be used to advertise the program and attract more learners. If they do not show improvement, the program director and the instructors can try to find the problem with the program and fix it.
Finally, one last stage of verifying results is asking the learners what they think they have learned. This could reveal things that the instructors did not realize the learners had learned. On the other hand, it could also give the instructors a chance to correct a learner's wrong impression. For example, the comments may show that a learner is dissatisfied with the program or with his or her own performance. If the student really has made progress and is just being hard on himself or herself, the instructor has an opportunity to correct the wrong impression.
B. Grade determination for this course: with the students' performance being the focus of most of the class hours, it is an easy matter to grade individual performances as they occur. There should be a mix of oral presentation and performance and written reports included in the daily grading. In addition, midterm and final examinations are useful as an incentive for learners to spend some time reviewing what they have learned. One possible format for the midterm or final is for the instructor to choose an unfamiliar newspaper article on a familiar topic. The students can be given some time to preview the text and ask questions, then they will prepare an oral or written summary or reaction to the text. The preview can be done at the end of a class session and the actual test can be done either in class or at home. The following is the tentative procedure:
1) The students preview the text.
2) The students ask questions about elements they do not understand or for which they lack vocabulary.
3) The students summarize, interpret, or evaluate the text in some way either orally or in writing. If the test is a take-home test, the students could be required to tape an oral summary of the text, or even get together in small groups and tape a discussion about the text. Of course a written reaction is also convenient to assign as a take-home test.